For applications in portable electronics, electric vehicles, and grid storage, among others, batteries with higher energy storage density than current Li-ion batteries should be developed. Recent efforts in this direction have focused on high-capacity electrode materials. In particular, as an anode material, Li metal would be an optimal choice because it has the highest specific capacity (about 3860 mAh g−1) and the lowest anode potential among contemplated candidates. However, Li metal anode tends to form dendritic and mossy metal deposits, causing serious safety concerns and low Coulombic efficiency during charge/discharge cycles. Though advanced characterization techniques have helped shed light on the Li growth process, effective strategies to improve Li metal anode cycling remain lacking.
It is against this background that a need arose to develop the embodiments described herein.